[i] Two million others migrated, mostly to Venezuela, or were forcibly displaced from their homes. [62][63], Despite the massive scale and organised manner in which war crimes and crimes against humanity had been committed during the Mozambican civil war, so far not one RENAMO or FRELIMO commander has appeared before a war crimes tribunal of any sort. Tanzania also sent troops to back FRELIMO. [36] The rebels appealed to South Africa and Rhodesia for military assistance to preempt the installation of a FRELIMO government. [73] REASON 20 (June 1988): 22-30. p. 88, 28, Andersson, Hilary. Everything was a complete shame inside that corral. It had to defend vast areas and hundreds of locations, while RENAMO operated out of a few remote camps, carrying out raids against towns and important infrastructure. [38], The independence of Mozambique was especially devastating for white-ruled Rhodesia in multiple aspects. From Juliana Taiwo-Obalonye, Abuja President Muhammadu Buhari has approved the appointment of Dr. Asabe Vilita Bashir as the new Director General for the National Center for Women Development (NCWD). [44], From 1975 to 1979, Rhodesian troops and forces repeatedly entered into Mozambique in order to carry out operations against supposed ZANLA (Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army) bases tolerated on Mozambican territory by the FRELIMO government[45] and to destabilise the FRELIMO government directly. [â¦] Reportedly the Government soldiers aim their defensive fire at the attackers, while the RENAMO forces shoot indiscriminately into the village. Bigwigs of the All Progressives Congress, APC, in the South West have backed the ban on open grazing. [56] Thus RENAMO had to give up its base camps in the Gorongosa area. There are, however, signs of collaboration between the ASG, the MNLF, and the MILF on an individual level. These include mass killing, rape and mutilation of non-combatants during terroristic raids on villages and towns, the use of child soldiers and the employment of the Gandira system, based upon forced labour and sexual violence. RENAMOPRM (merged with RENAMO in 1982)UNAMO (1987â1988)[1]COREMO[3]UNIPOMO[4]FUMO[4] Rhodesia (until 1979)[5], The Mozambican Civil War (Portuguese: Guerra Civil Moçambicana) was a civil war fought in Mozambique from 1977 to 1992. International Security Studies Program, Ballinger Publishing Company, 1988. Despite these accusations President Machel made numerous visits to various camps and released about 2,000 detainees in 1980 and closed numerous camps citing human rights abuses. [57] In the spring of 1977, the Romanian Socialist Army sent 500 soldiers and officers to Mozambique. [33] The turmoil in the metropole was mirrored by increasing instability in Mozambique and a further weakening of Portugal's grip on its East African colony. [16], In 1982, landlocked Zimbabwe directly intervened in the civil war in order to secure its vital transport routes in Mozambique, stop cross-border RENAMO raids, and help its old ally FRELIMO. Shortly after independence many local chiefs were ousted and removed from positions of power and many dissidents were imprisoned in re-education camps. This manifested itself in the Rhodesia-sponsored foundation of RENAMO, then called the Mozambique National Resistance (MNR), in 1974 and in South Africa's adoption of the "Total National Strategy". [77], Rape also became a widespread and problematic practise of FRELIMO soldiers. One particularly gruesome practice was the mutilation and killing of children left behind by escaped parents. [28] FRELIMO guerrillas initially received training primarily in North Africa and the Middle East in countries such as Algeria, with the Soviet Union and People's Republic of China providing military equipment. Chissano continued Machel's policies of expanding Mozambique's international ties, particularly the country's links with the West, and starting programs of internal economic and military reforms. J. The loss of these ports after President Machel declared sanctions against the country further weakened the already fragile economy of Rhodesia and angered the Ian Smith regime.[39]. There's a difference between arguing with someone and shamelessly trying to deride someone's opinion. [35] Black opposition movements in South Africa declared that they would bring FRELIMO officials to address rallies being held near Durban, Johannesburg, and at the University of Northern Transvaal. RENAMO received extensive military and logistical support from Rhodesia and South Africa as well as organisational support from West Germany. Yet, following the general elections, a new political crisis emerged and the country appears to be once again on the brink of violent conflict. [71] The report concluded that RENAMO's actions in Homoine did not significantly differ from the tactics it normally employed in such raids. An estimated 200,000 people were killed during this period, including 112,000 between 1948 and 1950 alone. [4], RENAMO opposed FRELIMO's attempts to establish a socialist one-party state, and was heavily backed by the anti-communist governments in Rhodesia and South Africa. FRELIMO initially received substantial military and development aid from the Soviet Union and East Germany but later received support from France, the UK and the U.S. FRELIMO soldiers also committed serious war crimes during the civil war. However, in 1979 Matsangaissa died in RENAMO's unsuccessful first attack on a major regional centre (Vila Paiva) and RENAMO was quickly ousted from the region. [31] Simultaneously, FRELIMO also pursued close relations with the latter; for example, by 1971 it had cultivated an alliance with the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA). It coerced thousands of peasants to move into communal villages and communal farms where they were given food, water and healthcare, but lacked adequate tools and money to farm effectively. "Mozambique: a leader's legacy: economic failure, growing rebellion. Furthermore, in order to keep a minimum level of infrastructure working, three heavily guarded and mined corridors were established consisting of roads, railways and power lines: the Beira, the Tete (also called the Tete Run which speaks for itself regarding its safety) and the Limpopo Corridor. [5] For their part, the Rhodesian and South African defence establishments used RENAMO as a proxy to undermine FRELIMO support for militant nationalist organisations in their own countries. ", a long and bitter counter-insurgency conflict, Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army, operations against supposed ZANLA (Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army) bases, War and Society: The Militarisation of South Africa. Thus it appears the only difference between the Homoine massacre and RENAMO's usual methods was the size of the operation. The latter is rather stupid. [37] The uprising was eventually crushed after four days by an unlikely coalition of Portuguese and FRELIMO forces.[36]. The Romanians were deployed to Maputo and Nacala. When we went to the fields or to the cemeteries to bury the dead, the soldiers had to come behind and in front of us. A larger number of civilians in these attacks and other contexts were reported to be victims of purposeful shooting deaths and executions, of axing, knifing, bayoneting, burning to death, forced drowning and asphyxiation, and other forms of murder where no meaningful resistance or defense is present. [34], The Portuguese decision to effect a transfer to power to FRELIMO, without a local referendum or elections, was greeted with intense trepidation by Portugal's traditional Cold War allies: South Africa, Rhodesia, and the United States. [35] The US government predicted that an independent Mozambique under the direction of FRELIMO would be heavily influenced by the Soviet bloc. ": An Atypical Former Guerrilla in the Mozambican Electoral Campaign, https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/handle/1887/12089, Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives, 1947â1948 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine, North Yemen-South Yemen Border conflict of 1972, Struggle against political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union, List of Eastern Bloc agents in the United States, American espionage in the Soviet Union and Russian Federation, Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War, Insurgency in the Maghreb (2002âpresent), 2016â2017 Gambian constitutional crisis, ECOWAS military intervention in the Gambia, Sudanese conflict in South Kordofan and Blue Nile, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mozambican_Civil_War&oldid=1019036188, Wars involving the states and peoples of Africa, Civil wars involving the states and peoples of Africa, Articles with dead external links from April 2018, Articles with permanently dead external links, Articles containing Portuguese-language text, Articles lacking reliable references from December 2018, Articles lacking in-text citations from August 2009, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. But the difference between success or failure to manage these challenges lies mainly with the leadership and how it copes with the issues of governance that come up ⦠[20] FRELIMO's security forces and RENAMO insurgents were accused of committing numerous human rights abuses, including using child soldiers and salting a significant percentage of the countryside indiscriminately with land mines. As the Portuguese left some purposefully sabotaged the economy, stealing profits from factories, driving tractors into the sea and pouring cement into sewers. Thus, despite its far superior numbers, FRELIMO was unable to adequately defend most regions except the most important cities by the mid-1980s. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992. p. 64, 92, THE FACTS ON FILE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE 20TH CENTURY. [31] Representatives from the defence establishments of the three countries agreed to meet periodically to share intelligence and coordinate operations against militant nationalist movements in their respective countries. This caused more and more persons to be physically unable to endure the long transportation marches demanded from them. Igreja, Victor, The Monkey's Sworn Oath. On 5 September 2014, former president Armando Guebuza and the leader of RENAMO Afonso Dhlakama signed the Accord on Cessation of Hostilities, which brought the military hostilities to a halt and allowed both parties to concentrate on the general elections to be held in October 2014. The search for a successor to the late Chief of Army Staff (COAS) Lt. General Ibrahim Attahiru, has commenced. There were several reports that schools and health clinics are typical targets for destruction. Colin Legum, Africana Publishing Company, 1982, Bulletin of Tanzanian Affairs No 30, May 1988, Mozambique to return bodies of Tanzanian soldiers, "MOZAMBIQUE: population growth of the whole country", "Mozambique's Renamo kills three on highway", "36 Mozambique soldiers, police killed: Renamo", https://www.voanews.com/africa/mozambique-president-opposition-leader-sign-peace-agreement, "MOZAMBIQUE: Dismantling the Portuguese Empire", "Jacob Alperin-Sheriff: McCain Urged Reagan Admin To Meet Terror Groups Without Pre-Conditions", "Toll Over 380; Guerrillas Blamed : Massacre in Mozambique: Babies, Elderly Shot Down", "Flash and a bang as Mozambique is declared free of landmines", "Provincial Autonomy: The Territorial Dimension of Peace in Mozambique", https://www.academia.edu/28536746/PORQU%C3%8A_O_CONFLITO_ARMADO_EM_MO%C3%87AMBIQUE_ENQUADRAMENTO_TE%C3%93RICO_DOMIN%C3%82NCIA_E_DIN%C3%82MICA_DE_RECRUTAMENTO_NOS_PARTIDOS_DA_OPOSI%C3%87%C3%83O, Learn how and when to remove this template message, "Dhlakama E Maningue Nice! It was like a yard for pigs. This was accompanied by crackdowns on dissidents and the nationalisation of important economic facilities abandoned by fleeing Portuguese. [40] The countries capacity to support national liberation movements also concerned South Africa and Rhodesia and both countries sought for a first strike strategy to counter this new threat. It was terrible; that is why many people used to run away from the communal village to their old residences where RENAMO soldiers were, although it was also terrible there. I am also convinced that the war was equally savage on both sides, even if the total domination of the media by FRELIMO for the 15 years of the war has led even those most desirous of remaining objective to attribute the majority of the atrocities to RENAMO. The Spanish Civil War (Spanish: Guerra Civil Española) was a civil war in Spain fought from 1936 to 1939. Collective and state agricultural programs were also scaled back, prompting concerns from the socialist bloc that Mozambique was "moving straight and naively into the mouth of the evil capitalist wolf". New York: Facts on File, 1991. p. 91, 640, "Pena de morte exigida para bandidos armados", Noticias, 1983. This was especially the case in central and northern Mozambique, where households are traditionally separated by considerable distances. However, it was far less frequent and lacked the institutionalised quality of sexual violence carried out by RENAMO. [47][48][49][50][16] RENAMO subsequently started operating in the Gorongosa region in order to destabilise the FRELIMO government and its support for the ZANLA liberation movement. Another way of using civilians for military purposes was the so-called system of "Gandira". Second, in both countries revolutionary socialist movements gained power. [32], In April 1974, Portugal's longstanding Estado Novo political order was dismantled as a result of the Carnation Revolution. [2] Banda explicitly turned against RENAMO after the disgruntled insurgents began targeting a vital rail line which linked Blantyre to Mozambican ports on the Indian Ocean coast. MOZAMBIQUE: A WAR AGAINST THE PEOPLE. FRELIMO reacted by reusing a system similar to the fortified villages aldeamentos introduced by the Portuguese: the creation of fortified communal villages called aldeamentos comunais where much of the rural population was relocated as the war intensified. You would be inaugurating an 86-unit housing estate built for the victims of insurgency to commemorate your 25th anniversary as a priest. On 4 October 1992, the Rome General Peace Accords, negotiated by the Community of Sant'Egidio with the support of the United Nations, were signed in Rome between President Chissano and RENAMO leader Afonso Dhlakama, which formally took effect on 15 October 1992. Later Zimbabwe became engaged further, carrying out several joint operations with FRELIMO against RENAMO strongholds. The Minister of Education, Adamu Adamu, on Tuesday in Abuja inaugurated 46 governing councils of Federal Polytechnics and Federal Colleges of Education (FCE). "[81] It is estimated that 30,000 inmates died in these camps. [31] The following year, Portugal established an informal military alliance with Rhodesia and South Africa known as the Alcora Exercise. Eyewitness accounts indicate that when civilians are killed in these indiscriminate attacks, whether against defended or undefended villages, children, often together with mothers and elderly people, are also killed. They threatened me with death and they told me and my family to go forward. [70] This incident prompted an investigation into RENAMO methods by US-State Department consultant Robert Gersony, which finally put an end to conservative ambitions for US-government support for RENAMO. East German military support to FRELIMO" Portuguese Journal of Social Science, 2010, Joseph Hanlon, "Beggar Your Neighbours: Apartheid Power in Southern Africa, 1986, Paul Fauvet, "Carlos Cardoso: Telling the Truth in Mozambique" Double Storey Books, 2003, Zinsmeister, Karl. FRELIMO hoped that this system would enable the fulfilment of its ambitious agricultural development goals, but the implementation often alienated parts of the rural population, whom FRELIMO had popular support from during the independence struggle. After negotiations, a reluctant Machel signed a non-aggression pact with South Africa, known as the Nkomati Accord. FRELIMO, meanwhile, fully honoured its side of the deal to expel violent ANC members from its territory and to downgrade the ANC's presence in the south of the country.[61][60]. [34] No elections were going to be held in Mozambique; instead, after a nine-month transition period, the positions of local government would simply be handed to FRELIMO officials. He was given military and organisational training and installed as the leader of the fledgling movement known as the Mozambique Resistance, which had been founded by the Rhodesian secret service before the independence of Mozambique in 1975 as an intelligence gathering group on FRELIMO and ZANLA. These movements had been cooperating with the black liberation movements in South Africa and Rhodesia, and continued to openly support them, offering them a safe haven from where they could coordinate their operations and train new forces. [60] With the economy in shambles, Machel was forced to scale back some of the more ambitious socialist policies; in a visit to Western Europe that same month, Machel signed military and economic agreements with Portugal, France, and the UK. Between 1948 and 1958, the Republic of Colombia was the scene of widespread and systematic political violence, known as La Violencia. The downfall of Portuguese colonial rule gave hope to black liberation struggles in the then apartheid South Africa and Rhodesia. It is estimated that one-third of RENAMO forces were child soldiers. RENAMO crimes gained worldwide public attention when RENAMO soldiers butchered 424 civilians, including the patients of a hospital, with guns and machetes during a raid on the rural town of Homoine. In 1990, with the Cold War in its closing days, apartheid crumbling in South Africa, and support for RENAMO drying up in South Africa, the first direct talks between the FRELIMO government and RENAMO were held. Mozambique was now a multiparty state, with periodic elections, and guaranteed democratic rights. The cause of all these we are witnessing , itâs abject poverty, that is causing all these banditry, insurgency, armed robbery in most cases. The last UNOMOZ contingents departed in early 1995. Like many regional African conflicts during the late twentieth century, the Mozambican Civil War possessed local dynamics but was also exacerbated greatly by the polarizing effects of Cold War politics.
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