The New York Times investigated social stratification in their series of articles called “Class Matters.” The online accompaniment to the series includes an interactive graphic called “How Class Works,” which tallies four factors — occupation, education, income, and wealth — and places an individual within a certain class and percentile. Weber’s analysis presents a more complex model of the social hierarchy of capitalist society than Marx. Britain’s monarchy arose during the Middle Ages. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. absolute poverty: A severe deprivation of basic human needs, including food, safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, health, shelter, education and information. The story of the Aboriginal gang members, although it is also a story of personal choices, casts that belief into doubt. The biggest losers with regard to neoliberal policy, of course, are the very poor. Their families have socialized them to know the customs, norms, and expectations that come with wealth. James & Laura Dunsmuir in Italian Garden, CA RRU 2011.025-B-1-11, Royal Roads University Archives, is in the public domain (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain), Figure 9.12 Karl Marx courtesy of John Mayall (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Portraits_of_Karl_Marx#/media/File:Karl_Marx_coloured.gif) is in the public domain, Figure 9.17. London, UK: Ashgate Publishing Co. Gilbert, D. (2010). Still, you are not likely to see someone driving a Mercedes living in an inner-city neighbourhood. Davis and Moore believed that rewarding more important work with higher levels of income, prestige, and power encourages people to work harder and longer. Today, the government is a constitutional monarchy with the prime minister and other ministers elected to their positions, and with the royal family’s role being largely ceremonial. The rich and the rest of us: The changing face of Canada’s growing gap. CBC. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. The petro-path not taken: Comparing Norway with Canada and Alberta’s management of petroleum wealth. As we note later in the chapter, there is dispute within the discipline about the relative importance of different criteria for characterizing economic position. The story of imported inequality is one example. Theoretical Perspectives on Social Stratification. 9.4. Neoliberalism describes the new thinking by government. ), Max Weber: Essays in sociology (pp. 3. Retrieved form http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/03/world/europe/03summit.html. (2004). The underclass live mainly in inner cities. They define a crucial subjective component of class identities. Social stratification is a system that _____________________________. Sociologists make a distinction between ascribed status — a status one receives by virtue of being born into a category or group (e.g., hereditary position, gender, race, etc.) (2004). Ted seized the opportunity at Upper Canada to make money as a bookie, taking bets on horse racing from the other students. The functionalist perspective states that inequality serves an important function in aligning individual merit and motivation with social position. What factor makes caste systems closed? MBM data are available since 2000 only. People with the “wrong” cultural attributes have difficulty attaining the same privileged status. Low income measure: The LIM is defined as half the median family income. But as the data above indicate, the distribution of wealth is not even. It is essential reading for social scientists and policy-makers of every persuasion. For example, although plumbers might earn more than high school teachers, the status division between blue-collar work (people who “work with their hands”) and white-collar work (people who “work with their minds”) means that plumbers may be characterized as lower class but teachers as middle class. With respect to class, Weber also relies on a different definition than Marx. Examples of Economic Inequality. An individual moves down the class ladder. Marx saw workers experience deep exploitation, alienation, and misery resulting from class power (Marx, 1848). Researchers suggest that the disparity also resulted from power differences. Subjects: Sociology. Some are high school dropouts. The communist manifesto. Global stratification highlights worldwide patterns of social inequality. A “middle class” is composed of small business owners and educated, professional, or administrative labour, not because they have control other strata of society, but they do exert some control over their own work. However, the data also show that Canada does not have true equality of opportunity. What examples can you think of that refute the thesis? They run the major network television stations, radio broadcasts, newspapers, magazines, publishing houses, and sports franchises. Sources Statistics Canada (1998) Income Distribution by Size in Canada Catalogue No. Income, purchasing power, and wealth are used to calculate global stratification. In sociology, even an issue such as NBA salaries can be seen from various points of view. Shaienks, D., & Gluszynski, T. (2007). “When you’ve set up a place to sleep for the night, someone comes along and threatens you or forces you to leave, it’s no way to live. Did the social standing of your parents differ from the social standing of your grandparents and great-grandparents? From 1981 until the present, during another period of rapid and extensive economic change, the overall production of wealth continued to expand. It is essential reading for social scientists and policy-makers of every persuasion. Shaienks, D., & Gluszynski, T. (2007). The economic model of Fordism, adopted in the wealthy Northern countries, offered a solution to the crisis by creating a system of intensive mass production (maximum use of machinery and minute divisions of labour), cheap products, high wages, and mass consumption. Some principles of stratification. The bourgeoisie has through its exploitation of the world market given a cosmopolitan character to production and consumption in every country. Upward mobility refers to an increase — or upward shift — in social class. Introduction to Sociology - 2nd Canadian Edition by William Little is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. In most communities, people interact primarily with others who share the same social standing. The Daily — High-income trends among Canadian taxfilers, 1982 to 2010. Now choose a group of people you have observed and been a part of — for example, cousins, high school friends, classmates, sport teammates, or coworkers. Examples of “social problem” novels include Charles Dickens’s (1812-1870) The Adventures of Oliver Twist (1838), which shocked readers with its brutal portrayal of the realities of poverty, vice, and crime. equality of condition: A situation in which everyone in a society has a similar level of wealth, status, and power. Identify the structural basis for the different classes that exist in capitalist societies. Did the social standing of your parents differ from the social standing of your grandparents and great-grandparents? Canadians celebrate the rags- to-riches achievements of celebrities like Guy Laliberté who went from street busking in Quebec to being the CEO of Cirque du Soleil, with a net worth of $2.5 billion. Which graphic concept best illustrates the concept of social stratification? McDonald, D. (2014). Yalnizyan, A. The traditional working class is sometimes also referred to as being part of the lower class. The underclass or lumpenproletariat is Canada’s lowest tier. Thus, the strength of Marx’s analysis is its ability to go beyond a description of where different groups fit within the class structure at a given moment in time to an analysis of why those groups and their relative positions change with respect to one another. World leaders pledge $1.1 trillion for crisis. Veltmeyer, H. (1986). Most sociologists define social class as a grouping based on similar social factors like wealth, income, education, and occupation. [Return to Quiz]. CCPA Monitor. These dissenting authors used gender and morality to question the class system and expose its inequalities. Corak, M., Curtis, L., & Phipps, S. (2010). Social Inequality and Mobility in Canada, 9.3. Money provides not just access to material goods, but also access to power. Empire. Most people connect inequalities of wealth, status, and power to the individual characteristics of those who succeed or fail. The arrival of the Industrial Revolution changed Britain’s social structure. Newbury Park, CA: Pine Forge Press. Symbolic interactionists examine stratification from a micro-level perspective. Some principles of stratification: A critical analysis. Beck, U. petite bourgeoisie: In capitalism, the class of small owners like shopkeepers, farmers, and contractors who own some property and perhaps employ a few workers but rely on their own labour to survive. Experiences of Institutional Discrimination – Evidence Highlights This is bad news, since a growing body of empirical evidence shows that extreme inequality has a clearly negative effect on a wide range of health, social and economic problems, as well as undermining democracy. Social class has both a strictly material quality relating to these definitions of individuals’ positions within a given economic system, and a social quality relating to the formation of common class interests, political divisions in society, sites of conflict and compromise, life styles and consumption patterns, and what Max Weber called different “life chances” (1969). They allow for movement between the classes. Capitalism itself was for the most part regulated by competition until stock market crash of 1929 and the Great Depression of the 1930s. Nations Online refers to itself as “among other things, a more or less objective guide to the world, a statement for the peaceful, nonviolent coexistence of nations.” The website provides a variety of cultural, financial, historical, and ethnic information on countries and peoples throughout the world: http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/first.shtml, 6. Stratification systems are either closed, meaning they allow little change in social position, or open, meaning they allow movement and interaction between the layers. Retrieved from http://ftp.iza.org/dp4814.pdf. While Canada is supposed to be a meritocracy, many factors hinder upward social mobility. Pop star Justin Bieber might dress in hoodies, ball caps, and ill fitting clothes, and a low-income hipster might own designer shoes. It contains structured and recurrent patterns of unequal distributions of goods, wealth, opportunities, rewards, and punishments. There are many forms of inequality in Canada and internationally, although this papers main focus is going to be the inequality of wealth. Moreover, the share of the total income claimed by those in the middle-income ranges has been shrinking since the early 1980s, while the share taken by the wealthiest has been growing (Osberg, 2008). Al, 2010). Economic mobility, family background, and the well-being of children in the United States and Canada. These days, individual taste does not necessarily follow class lines. Some of the underclass are homeless. They also fund think tanks like the C. D. Howe Institute, AIMS and the Fraser Institute. Thus, neoliberalism is a set of policies in which the state reduces its role in providing public services, regulating industry, redistributing wealth, and protecting “the commons” — i.e., the collective property that exists for everyone to share (the environment, public and community facilities, airwaves, etc.). Relative poverty refers to the minimum amount of income or resources needed to be able to participate in the “ordinary living patterns, customs, and activities” of a society (Townsend, 1979). Some analyses of class emphasize variables like wealth, income, education, and occupation. Even though the countries with the lowest levels of inequality — Denmark, Sweden, the Netherlands, and Austria — have progressive tax systems and strong welfare states, they are able to maintain high levels of employment and economic growth while remaining “competitive” in the global economy (Osberg, 2010). Corak, M., Curtis, L., & Phipps, S. (2010). By 1900 the British middle class established a rigid definition for itself, and England’s working class also began to self-identify and demand a better way of life. — it is often difficult to see the way in which life chances are socially structured. Veblen, T. (1994). Which statement illustrates low status consistency? Caste systems promote beliefs in fate, destiny, and the will of a higher power, rather than valuing individual freedom. This was generally a closed system, with people born into positions of nobility. United Nations. Trade agreements no longer restricttheflowofcapitalandgoods. Neoliberalism is a set of policies in which the state reduces its role in providing public services, regulating industry, redistributing wealth, and protecting “the commons” —the collective property that exists for everyone to share (the environment, public and community facilities, airwaves, etc.). Canada is supposed to be a country in which individuals can work hard to get ahead. A $17,000 car provides transportation as easily as a $100,000 vehicle, but the luxury car makes a social statement that the less-expensive car can’t live up to. They also fund think tanks like the C. D. Howe Institute and the Fraser Institute that promote the values and interests of business elites. The project was successful in reaching its target of cutting extreme poverty by half — the number of people living on $1.25/day or less — but fell slightly short of halving the number of people suffering from hunger. An editor shares the same social class as his cousin. A “communist” society that abolished the private ownership of the means of production would be a true democracy. What evidence do you see of the relative decline in wealth and income of the middle class? James & Laura Dunsmuir in Italian Garden, CA RRU 2011.025-B-1-11, Royal Roads University Archives, is in the public domain (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain), Figure 6.11. Harvey, D. (1989). There is an arbitrariness to the division of classes into upper, middle, and lower. Theoretical Perspectives on Social Inequality As we have seen earlier in this chapter, the growing inequality in Canada can be seen as a product in a shift in government policy from a welfare state model of redistribution of resources to a neoliberal model of free market distribution of resources. Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/els/health-systems/health-data.htm. In developing countries, inadequate resourcing for health, education, sanitation, … 15. Köhler, N. (2010, November 22). It is a matter of status — the level of honour or prestige one holds in the community by virtue of ones social position — as much as a matter of class. [PDF], The petro-path not taken: Comparing Norway with Canada and Alberta’s management of petroleum wealth. If we add the element of status into the picture, the situation becomes even more complex as the educational requirements and social responsibilities of the high school teacher usually confer more social prestige than the requirements and responsibilities of the pipe welder. In the last century, Canada has seen a steady rise in standard of living, wealth available to acquire material necessities and comforts. Actor and comedian Jim Carey lived with his family in camper van at one point growing up in Scarborough, Ontario. Globalization means that borders become markedly less relevant to everyday behaviour in the various dimensions of economics, information, ecology, technology, cross-cultural conflict and civil society. When budgets are tight, lower-middle-class people are often the ones to lose their jobs. Social mobility refers to the ability to change positions within a social stratification system. The class interests clash and define a pattern of management-labour conflict and political differences. Still, you are not likely to see someone driving a Mercedes living in an inner-city neighbourhood. Toronto: Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives. Symbolic interactionists also note that people’s appearance reflects their perceived social standing. Toronto, ON: Garamond. 9.4. New York, NY: Routledge. Social Inequality measures the consistency and logic of perceived social conditions and priorities in Canada compared with 18 other countries. Canada is ranked as having the 8th highest gender pay gap out of a list of 43 countries examined by the OECD, based on 2016 data. Nations Online refers to itself as “among other things, a more or less objective guide to the world, a statement for the peaceful, nonviolent coexistence of nations.” The website provides a variety of cultural, financial, historical, and ethnic information on countries and peoples throughout the world: http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/first.shtml, 9.. Introduction to Social Inequality in Canada. Nevertheless, according to critical sociologists, increasing social inequality is neither inevitable nor necessary. While both types may have equal net worth, they have traditionally held different social standing. —and achieved status — a status one receives through individual effort or merits (e.g., occupation, educational level, moral character, etc.). For example, what speech patterns or clothing trends do you and your friends share? Caste systems are closed stratification systems in which people can do little or nothing to change their social standing. Retrieved from http://www.hrsdc.gc.ca/eng/labour/labour_relations/info_analysis/wages/adjustments/2010/09/quarterly.shtml. Despite this emphasis on equality, today’s world continues to be plagued by many social inequalities among people. Social stratification assigns people to socioeconomic strata based on factors like wealth, income, race, education, and power. A caste society socialized individuals to accept his or her social standing. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, American and British novelists played a role in changing public perception. When he died in 2008, Ted Rogers Jr., then CEO of Rogers Communications, was the fifth-wealthiest individual in Canada, holding assets worth $5.7 billion. Many of the novels of that era are seen as sociological goldmines. Culture, Tourism and the Centre for Education Statistics Research Papers. If children’s earnings or status moves up or down with respect to their parents, then there is social mobility. Cultural capital becomes a key measure of distinction between social strata. 9.4. In addition, change proceeds from the quantitative to the qualitative in the sense that changes in purely quantitative variables like salary, working conditions, unemployment levels, rates of profitability, etc. Class, status and party. Hindu scripture said, “In order to preserve the universe, Brahma (the Supreme) caused the Brahmin to proceed from his mouth, the Kshatriya to proceed from his arm, the Vaishya to proceed from his thigh, and the Shudra to proceed from his foot” (Kashmeri, 1990). As media owners, they shape the nation’s identity. While earnings elasticity (from 2006 data) in the United States was 0.47, meaning that almost one half of the fathers’ earning advantage was passed on to their sons, in Canada the figure was 0.19, meaning that less than one-fifth of the father’s earnings advantage was passed on. In 2009, according to each measure, the following numbers of Canadians were living in low income: Table 9.1 shows how the three measures also produce different results over time. Yalnizyan, A. Ted Sr.’s father, Albert Rogers, held a position as a director of Imperial Oil. However, unlike caste systems, class systems are open. Kashmeri, Z. Marx’s analysis, as we saw earlier in this chapter, emphasized a materialist approach to the underlying structures of the capitalist economy. The post-World War II labour-management compromise or “accord” involved the recognition and institutionalization of labour unions, the mediation of the state in capital/labour disputes, the use of taxes and Keynesian economic policy to address economic recessions, and the gradual roll out of social safety net provisions. Society’s layers are made of people, and society’s resources are distributed unevenly throughout the layers. Canadian society has historically distinguished between “old money” (inherited wealth passed from one generation to the next) and “new money” (wealth you have earned and built yourself). standard of living: The level of wealth available to acquire material goods and comforts to maintain a particular socioeconomic lifestyle. A janitor belongs to the same social class as his grandmother. There was a time in Canada when class was more visibly apparent. Charles Dickens by Jeremiah Gurney (http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dickens_Gurney_head.jpg) is in the public domain (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain), Figure 9.20. As a global centre of employment, corporations have introduced merit-based hiring and employment to the nation. Bourdieu, P. (1984). This transition does not take place in a vacuum, however. Tumin questioned what determined a job’s degree of importance. Class stratification is not just determined by a group’s economic position but by the prestige of the group’s occupation, education level, consumption, and lifestyle. A person who lived in a caste society was socialized to accept his or her social standing. With such opposing interests, the two groups were divided by differences of wealth and power. He saw himself as a self-made billionaire who started from scratch, seized opportunities, and created a business through his own initiative. In the lower middle class, people hold jobs supervised by members of the upper middle class. LICO—3.2 million (9.6 per cent of the population). As in Marx’s analysis, the economic interests that stem from owning property/capital or not owning property/capital are still the basic variables that define one’s class situation or life chances. Structural mobility is attributable to changes in society as a whole, not individual changes. These days, individual taste does not necessarily follow class lines. And how does social standing expand or limit a person’s choices? Retrieved from https://www.policyalternatives.ca/sites/default/files/uploads/publications/National%20Office/2014/04/Outrageous_Fortune.pdf. 5. Abercrombie, N., & Urry, J. Veltmeyer, H. (1986). 16–19). [PDF] Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives. Some of the underclass are homeless. hereditary position, gender, race, etc.). Open systems, which are based on achievement, allow movement and interaction between layers and classes. For inspiration, turn on a news channel or read the newspaper. Which of the following scenarios is an example of intergenerational mobility? Marquand, R. (2011, April 15). Neoliberal policy is presented as a way to attract increasingly fickle global capital by making entire countries more “competitive.” The result, as David Harvey (b. Commoners moved to cities, got jobs, and made better livings. American Sociological Review, 10(2), 242–249. The rise of Canada’s richest 1%. would not skew the relationship between merit and rewards. The irony of rising standards of living is that one does not have to live in absolute poverty — “a severe deprivation of basic human needs, including food, safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, health, shelter, education and information” (United Nations, 1995) — to be marginalized and socially excluded. The wages that define the wage labourer are paid by the capitalist; the profit and capital accumulated by the capitalist are products of the workers’ labour. In terms of individual ability: Who gets the opportunities to develop their abilities and talents, and who does not? Social inequality is characterized by the existence of unequal opportunities and rewards for different social positions or statuses within a group or society. Rising income inequality continues to be an economic, social and political concern both internationally and here in Canada. What cultural elements, such as taste in music or hobbies, define your peer group? The Globe and Mail. BC Supreme Court rules homeless have right to public spaces. Global stratification compares the wealth, economic stability, status, and power of countries. Based on the Weberian approach, some sociologists talk about upper, middle, and lower classes (with many subcategories within them) in a way that mixes status categories with class categories. Although the majority of people in Canada have not seen any growth in real income in three decades (Osberg, 2008), the average income of the top 1% grew by about 180% (Yalnizyan, 2010).
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